Patato Chips

Baseball, hot dogs, potato chips, and pop. What can be more American than that? The potato chip is the king of salty, crunchy snacks. Potato chips originated in New England in 1853 at Moon Lake Lodge in Saratoga Springs, New York. The inventor, a chef named George Crum, was part Native American and part African American and a guide in the Adirondack area. The potato chip was invented when a dinner guest returned his fried potatoes to Chef George Crum because they were not crunchy enough. After returning the unacceptable fried potatoes twice, the irritated Chef Crum decided to annoy the customer by making the fried potatoes too thin to eat with a fork. The customer was surprisingly satisfied and the potato chip was invented. The invention of potato chips has had a positive impact on our country’s economy, the mechanized technology of potato chip production, and the popularity of chips as a main ingredient of social gatherings. Potatoes are second in consumption only to rice. As thin, salted crisp chips, they are America’s favorite snack. From the beginning, potato chips made a difference in the economic situation at Moon Lake Lodge in showing an increase of profits as the potato chips, the house specialty, began to appear In 1926 Laura Scudder developed the wax paper bag to preserve the chips, which permitted wider distribution. Sheets of waxed paper were ironed into bags. Chips were then hand packed and the bags were sealed on top with warm irons. This was the invention of the potato chip bag as we know it today and its manufacture has continued. Both the developments of the mechanical peeler and the wax paper led to the popularity of the chips beyond the northern part of the U. S. , where chips were mainly a restaurant dinner dish for decades. The development of pre-print waxed glassine bags in 1933 further expanded the sale of potato chips. With the increase of different chip manufactures around the country by 1929, the glassine bag provided improved quality of freshness for shipping time and allowed for advertising with company brand identification printed on the bag. In 1929, production of potato chips dramatically increased due to the invention of the continuous fryer. In the first part of the century, potato chip manufacturing was done in small batches in small kettles. The continuous fryer allowed for a greater scale of production and eliminated most of the kettle cooker companies. Potato chip manufacturing has provided employment in several areas such as factory production, production and printing of boxes and bags, advertising, and shipping. It has provided profits for stores and vendors who sell snacks at sport games, fairs, and recreational facilities.

High School and School Valedictorian Competition Essay

In the essay, â€Å"The Joy of Graduating† by Kate Stone Lombardi, describes the traditional high school valedictorian competition with the most prestigious students. The fight for the position of valedictorian has intensified over the years. Danielle Gorman, an elected valedictorian at Moorestown High School in New Jersey, was quoted by Lombardi of the qualifications and standards it took to become valedictorian. The traits Gorman describes common to valedictorians were taking on too much and are unwilling to fail. I think that Gorman’s assessment is reasonable because many people who strive to become valedictorian take on â€Å"more than they can chew† by taking multiple advanced placement classes to extracurricular activities in and outside of school. My senior class in high school had very competitive students when it came down to ASB or any student elections. Each student who participated was usually the overachiever; they took multiple AP classes, team captains of the sports’ teams, and public speakers for all school events. Each student tried to work harder and prove that he or she could attempt to accomplish more than one another. The students knew that having the title in high school would set them apart from everyone else so that they could have a higher ranking along with using their popularity to their advantage in gaining that title. The idea of getting this title would overwhelm students so much that it would cause more stress on themselves on top of the classes they were already taking. Because of our school’s competitiveness it was difficult to decide one individual for valedictorian. When it was time to decide who would become the valedictorian, there were two top students whom our class thought would fit the winning spot. One of the students was a girl named Asal, who was elected senior class president for ASB. The other student was a boy named Henock, who was also elected in ASB but for the school president. Both students had superb grades close to a 5. 0 gpa and they both participated in every on and off campus school event. Each of them had many responsibilities. They each would do their part to help the school community when it came to any projects or tutoring. They set a great example for the student body to look up to. They wounded up the crowds during athletic games and pep rallies with incredible school spirit. They each would help come up with ideas and themes for dances, along with helping our school clubs with fundraisers and events such as blood drives. They would help put up flyers and make announcements to make the students aware of fundraisers and activities that were constantly going on at school. They would try to help get the whole school more involved by creating fun games and contests going on during lunch to make sure that everyone felt like they were a part of something no matter what grade level they were in. They had all this pressure coming down on them with all these school activities, along with their school work. They felt the need to accomplish these tasks in order to get into their dream college so this would help them feel a little more secure that they would be accepted. It was incredible that they were able to complete these tasks as full time students and it must have been mentally and physically exhausting. Our student body recognized their hard work and accomplishments so we naturally put them on a pedestal. The senior class knew that one of these remarkable scholars could be elected valedictorian. I personally encountered experiences with them both on how stressful it was for them to undertake so many duties. I had a couple of classes with each of the presidents, and I started to witness each of them become more stressed out as more and more talk went around the school about who would become the valedictorian. They took the initiative to work ten times harder in class and pushed to receive perfect scores on tests and projects to raise their overall grade, so their percentage would help raise their gpa. They took on so many extracurricular activities that they had no social life outside of school and struggled to keep up with everything going on. They were pushing themselves to the limit to be the best they could be. This soon turned into a chaotic competition between the two most prestigious students in our senior class. Once graduation day had finally arrived, we were anxious to see whose hard work and commitment had paid off. Everyone was sitting in their assigned seats, clothed in their cap and gown anxiously waiting for the speeches to be presented. I was looking around the stage to see who was chosen for the class valedictorian, but I couldn’t seem to spot out Henock or Asal anywhere. The principal was the first to give out the welcome speech. He presented a few awards and gave out some words of wisdom to the present senior class. Finally, at the end of his speech he announced that it was time to name our senior class’ valedictorian. Everyone moved around their seats anxiously trying to see who would be honored with this great achievement. The principal then surprised us with a statement none of us expected. There were to be two valedictorians honored this year because of their outstanding gpa and wide variety of extracurricular activities. Henock and Asal both gained the winning spot that they were each competing for. These two candidates spent their high school career taking various AP courses and being active participants in the school community in order to set themselves apart from the crowd and gained the honorable title of valedictorian. Little did they know that apparently their gpa’s were only a hundredth of a point apart. The principal explained that Henock actually had the overall higher gpa, but he felt that because of Asal’s hard work and effort she should deserve the same recognition. Needless to say our whole senior class was pretty shocked. We noticed how hard working and competitive these two had gotten to try to be valedictorian and yet both of them received the winning spot. Our school traditionally only had one valedictorian chosen each year so it caught us off guard that there were two valedictorians. It was ironic that they were both competing so hard against one another when all this hard work they accomplished still got them the credit they deserved. When the speeches were to be given out by our two valedictorians, I was expecting for Henock and Asal to compete for a better speech as well because I thought that since there is traditionally one valedictorian, they would still try to go head to head at who could give a better and more inspiring speech. But to my surprise they each gave out their congratulatory response to one another within their speech. In Henock’s speech, he acknowledged that Asal was a great inspiration and motivation for him to try harder in his classes and to exceed even his own expectations because that was how he perceived how she was in her classes. He admitted that he looked up to her with great respect and that she definitely deserved to be valedictorian whether or not he was chosen with her. Asal was very grateful and said a few great admiring words about him to show her appreciation towards him and his hard work. The fact that my high  school had two valedictorians did seem to be out of the ordinary for my senior class, but it certainly was deserved to the right people. Danielle Gorman describes the traits of a valedictorian to take one more tasks and harder classes with the drive to not fail. My classmates Henock and Asal indeed had that drive and it paid off well for the both of them and they each were appreciative that they got to share that number one spot with each other. Although they went head to head with each other trying to achieve the same goal, they were in it to win it and they did.

Themes of Crhistian Faith Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Themes of Crhistian Faith - Essay Example lshtain judges the historical and modern events through the prism of religious and divine monism and promotes a view that only sovereignty of God can give societies a better sense of dignity, decency, and common sense. Elshtain’s book is a sustained examination, critique, and interpretation of monistic understanding of the sovereignty of God, states, and selves (227). The central thesis of the book claims that as a sovereign state is sovereign to God, so sovereign selves are to sovereign states (159). Elshtain’s book revolves around the topic of monistic religions, the finality of God’s religious word, and the conflict between individual autonomy and the power of religion. Elshtain discusses and evaluates the changes that have occurred to the current position of religion against the state: today, individuals seek to rely on individual judgments and no longer regard the word of God as the source of the ultimate truth. Elshtain refers to the case of Terry Schiavo to judge and condemn her family’s decision to let Terry die. Elshtain is confident that a truly theological state would not let family members kill Terry simply because she was causing them discomfort. Elshtain a sserts that Terry’s family members applied to the power of the state, state laws, and their autonomy to take the decisions that go against the will of God. Elshtain is confident that the shift of God’s sovereignty to the sovereignty of state marks the erosion of decency, dignity, and common sense in society and gives way to using others for the sake of personal comfort. The discussion of the bound and unbound state and self are among the central categories in Elshtain’s book. These categories reflect the two opposing dimensions of the moral theory and represent the two dramatically different aspects of philosophic and religious reasoning. The discussion of state-bound and self-bound categories must begin with the reference to the Biblical scriptures. In ACTS 5:29 we read: â€Å"Peter and

Reconstruction Writing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Reconstruction Writing - Assignment Example Andrew Johnson who was the vice president became the president of the United States after the assassination of the president Abraham Lincoln. Johnson was a non slave holding individual and he remained loyal to the north and carried a distinct grudge towards the wealthy Southern Planter Class (Zuczek et al, 10). President Johnson was a white supremacist who clashed with the republicans over the reconstruction the liberation and union of the slaves African American. However, Johnson was determined to carry out the reconstruction policies of Lincoln’s (American Experience). Nevertheless, his policies were different from Lincoln’s and the congressmen’s. Johnson favored reconstruction policy, opposed African American equality and supported states rights unlike the leader of the congress in the radical republican who employed harsh punishment of the southern state but also worked towards the African American getting an equal treatment. In contrast to the passive approa ch of President Johnson, the radical republicans had a much tougher approach towards the African American. The republican were idealistic who were mostly driven by an almost religious fervor. The republican congress did not accept the commonly assumed notion that African Americans were inferior and therefore, they insisted on full social, civil and political rights for the former slaves. Furthermore, they were true reformers with very different ideas about reconstruction as compared to President Johnson. In the summer of 1965, the confederates’ state that had remained met Johnson’s reconstruction ideas that none of the constitutions allowed voting rights to African American. Congress refused to seat the representatives of the south to congress and the radicals in the congress were voting for reconstruction to punish the south harshly unlike the plan of Johnson ( Egerton, et al, 359). Also the presidential reconstruction of the southern government limited the African Am erican rights by passing a black code and prohibiting blacks from testifying in court, borrowing money to buy land or renting land. These black codes combined with the reconstruction plan of Johnson widen the wage between the Republicans in congress and Johnson. This was because unlike the reconstruction plan of Johnson the republican’s reconstruction campaigned for equal rights to the African American. The plan that was better according to me is the reconstruction plan of the republican in congress. This is because of many things in their plan. First of all, by waving the bloody shirt of 1866 congressional elections of republican campaign on hatred towards the southerners over the civil war hardships gained the republicans more than 2/3 majority seats in both houses of congress hence getting the power needed to override a presidential vote. Also the republican in congress reconstruction were more harsh on the southern states and more supportive and protective of African Amer ican rights. Secondly, the republican had two types of Republicans which made it better than the presidential reconstruction ( Egerton, et al, 360). The first was the Moderates which were mainly concerned with the economic gains for the white middle class and the north while the second type the Radicals also know as progressive championed for equal righ

Business Correspondence packet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Business Correspondence packet - Essay Example Living a sedentary lifestyle makes us more unhealthy as well, as we are more prone to eating convenience foods that are most always closely related to junk food and therefore deficient in nutritional value. We would be taking part in this effort by organizing two or three skits of short duration that would educate the kids and their caregivers about the risks and outcomes of ignoring the benefits of a balanced diet and a balanced lifestyle. In this connection, we would be printing invitation cards, brochures, program schedules and thank you cards. We are sure that you would want to do your part by agreeing to print out these items free of cost and thereby add to the success of this gala party. Apart from the theatre presentations, we have also added a number of attractions for the kids like a Merry-go-round, Bouncing Castle, Rides, Slides, See-saws, Swings and a Running Track that has been offered free of charge by the owners of a nearby park. We look forward to your taking part in t his effort. ... There is talk about the last depression and whether we are really out of it, whether the impending debt default and the impasse by the Republicans will create further financial and economic crisis for America, and whether the Obama Administration will manage to ride out these difficult times. Among the various uses of money, nothing is more appreciated than a donation to a good and worthy cause. We at the Save the Children Foundation of the USA are glad that we are saving our children from the menace of obesity and disease. In modern times, it has been found that lack of exercise and the adoption of a sedentary lifestyle coupled with bad food choices has contributed to a rise in diabetes, malnutrition and even heart disease among kids of younger ages. To educate the local community about these risks, we are planning to organize a three day Gala Party for kids and their caregivers that will give them a picture of these diseases of a modern sedentary lifestyle, as well as tell them abo ut the risks and responsibilities that they need to take if they want to avoid a bad fate. We invite you and State Farm Bank to donate towards this worthy cause that will protect the lives of our children and grandchildren. We daresay its one of the best investments you can make in terms of protecting your future customers. If you would like any clarification or more knowledge about the event, please contact me at (405)-345-6787 on any working day. Sincerely, Name of the Student Team Leader, Fund Raising Committee, Save the Children Fund, USA. 3. A Bad News/Refusal Letter Mr. Never Dowell, Splendid Heights, Signature Market Lane, IL 10034, USA. Dear Mr. Dowell, We refer to your recent application for a State Farm Silver

Women in Advertising Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Women in Advertising - Essay Example The essay "Women in Advertising" talks about the advertising today is one of the integral phenomena of modern life and the social roles of men and women which they have to carry out. Advertising images are simplified and stereotyped, but in such form they influence people, forcing them not only to buy goods but also reflect in their behavior. In addition to this, very often advertising describes public relations, including gender relations. Simplified nature of sexual roles, forms their similar treatment in the life of each certain individual, this means that, besides the main function (to force the buyer to choose these goods), advertising carries one more function which is social (it creates public relations). Furthermore, advertising transfers the social status or individual feeling concerning the certain product. There you will never hear or see the simple words â€Å"Buy this!†, this may be substituted by the other phrase. In general, they speak about things that you cann ot buy for the money. One cannot deny the fact that the image of a woman from antiquity in all cultures is an embodiment of sexuality and fertility. That is why the majority of the ads are focused on men’s audience, contains an image of the woman: the temptress and fatal beauty with roundish, convex forms. As a rule, women in such advertising show half naked body or its parts in seductive poses that denote an open hint on sex. The romantic image in it has rather a big impact on the audience as it casts thoughts of the finest and strong feeling.

Smartphone and Social Media Usage in the Healthcare Profession Research Paper

Smartphone and Social Media Usage in the Healthcare Profession - Research Paper Example As the report declares to put the issue of social media and Smartphone usage into context, it is essential to understand HIPAA requirements on the same. HIPAA privacy rule 164.502 states that a covered entity or any of its associate may not use or disclose cosseted health information, except as permitted or required by sub-article C of 160 of this rule. Sub article C outlines the circumstances under which, a medic or a medical entity can release a patient’s personal information. According to the essay findings the exceptions for disclosure are highly limited to criminal activity on the part of the patient. In essence therefore, social media and Smartphone use by medics seems to read from different pages with HIPAA. While social media is geared towards sharing one’s surrounding environment, HIPAA overrules such disclosure and can lead to serious consequences including license cancellation. From a medic’s perspective, Smartphones and social media can be a great mental relaxation tool, which in turn helps one assist patients better. By nature of their work, healthcare professionals have to work long hours. This causes mental and emotional strain, which if unchecked can lead to reduced concentration, and negative consequences to the patients. With the advent of social media, a medic can now get in touch with family and friends and release some work related steam. A light moment with a friend while on a ten minute break can go a long way in rejuvena ting a medic.

Emerging technologies- Nanotechnology Research Paper

Emerging technologies- Nanotechnology - Research Paper Example At the same time, technology was coming up with the ability to create simple structures at a molecular level. As the concept of nanotechnology became more acceptable, the word’s meaning shifted to include the much simpler nano-meter scale kinds of technology. Richard Feynman envisioned the theoretical capability of nanotechnology in the 1950s, when he talked about building billions of tiny factories that manufactured simultaneously by maneuvering objects atom by atom. Based on this vision, advanced nanotechnology aims to use mechanochemistry via guidance using molecular systems of machines. Shortly after molecular machinery as envisioned comes into play, it is expected that a manufacturing revolution will ensue. What need does nanotechnology address? The quality of all man-made products is dependent on the atomic arrangement of the product’s components. The cost of these products is also dependent on the process used to produce them, and ease of getting molecules and at oms to link up as we want them (Wilson, 2010). The energy used to create products, and the pollution it emits is also dependent upon the methods used to place, as well as connects the molecules to give out the desired product. Nanotechnology’s goal is to improve the amount of control, over the building process of products, to ensure they are of high quality and do not cause destructive environmental impact. Nanotechnology is one of the world’s hope for the solution to dirty and crude technologies that harm the earth’s biosphere. This technology has been identified as vital in addressing renewable and clean energy, global clean water supply and health improvement, preserving and healing the environment, availing information to all, and enabling the development of space. How does it improve upon existing designs? Nanotechnology can be used to improve on existing designs by allowing for the increased control over matter’s structure, which has been a primary project for mankind since early man. Nanotechnology, in today’s world, is helping to improve many industrial and technological sectors such as transportation, food safety, security, medicine, environmental science, energy and information technology. Most of its benefits are dependent on the ability to tailor essential material structures at the nano-scale in order to achieve particular properties (Einsiedel, 2009). This extends material science’s well-used tools and techniques, via which nanotechnology can be used to make materials better. This could be making materials better conductors of electricity, more sieve-like, more reactive, more durable, lighter or stronger. Already in existence are over eight hundred everyday products sold commercially that are reliant on nanotechnology and its integrated processes. Nano-scale polymer additives can simultaneously make them resilient, durable, stiff and lightweight such as in baseball bats. Nano-scale additives in or on fabr ics can make them wrinkle, stain, and bacterial growth resistant, as well as providing ballistic energy deflections on body armor (Einsiedel, 2009). What technologies does it build upon and/or rely on? Nanotechnology is built upon quantum science and its technology. The quantum size effect describes electron property physics in solids undergoing a great reduction in the size of its particles. This effect comes into play when the nanometer range of size is reached affecting the magnetic, electrical and optical behavior of these materials

Court Procedures 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Court Procedures 1 - Essay Example Unjustified questioning and searches were common and caused tension in the pre-revolutionary America. Not every arrest, annexation or search should be made pursuant to a legitimately effected warrant. The Supreme Court specifies that police might conduct searches or arrests without necessarily producing a warrant so long as the circumstances justifies and/or necessitates such seizures or arrests (exigent circumstance). Consequently, felonies and searches incident to legalized arrest are excluded from the 4th amendment. In a legal proceeding, equity between the victim and the offender and the rule of law must be upheld. The present form of jurisprudence exists to inform about imperative aspects in criminal justice including their rights, responsibilities and trial forms such as trial by compurgation and trial by battle. Commonly, police officers must produce a warrant of arrest when arresting a suspect and prosecution action follows unless the charge(s) against the individual are dismissed. The Miranda requires that the police inform a person in custody of their right to remain silent during a criminal proceeding and inform them that anything said might be used as evidence against them in a court. The chapter presents the case of North v. Russell where the supreme court upheld a layperson’s decision to sentence North to 30 days imprisonment for drunk driving. It considered that the layperson was justified to preside over the case due to inaccessibility of higher courts. Chapter 2 explores the rights, responsibilities and rules governing the use of engine-powered machines and roads. It specifies the occasions under which the police are authorized to conduct an arrest or seizure of a vehicle and its occupants. A pat down is legitimate at a police station if an officer suspects that the suspect is armed, the automobile is an instrumentality of the time, the recent occupant of the vehicle is

In reference to Honey and Mumford's (1986) Learning Styles, crticially Essay

In reference to Honey and Mumford's (1986) Learning Styles, crticially evaluate how learning styles can influence practice in the criminal justice environment - Essay Example he learning styles is, the personalities that are best suited by each of these learning styles and the level of their applicability in any given field. The first learning style highlighted is activism. An activist is a learner who acquires learning while on the job. Activists are willing to venture into any field, and take any activity-based training that suits their needs while on this job. Activism is absent in the UK justice system, but only encompassed in the police force for instance during new cases. Activism is a risky learning system for an area as sensitive as justice. However, it also holds a level of open-mindedness which can be used to bring in new perspectives to justice cases that might have had the wrong judgments leading to the sentencing of the wrong people. One of the key critiques assigned to the UK justice system is the inaccuracy of the key judgments passed during sentencing (Daily Mail, 2013, "online"). The second learning style is reflection. Reflectors are people who learn from their own experiences and the experiences of others. A reflector mostly needs a guide in order for him to learn effectively. Reflectors are critical thinkers who analyze situations from diverse perspectives, reviewing the experience from diverse perspectives in an attempt to find a set procedure through which they can acquire knowledge that will be crucial when they are handling this case again. This is a key component that needs to be added to the UK justice system practice, where mentorship should be introduced. Mentorship in the UK justice system can assist learners develop skills that are mostly suited for learners to meet their predetermined levels of success and accuracy. Comparing the previous generation’s levels of accuracy and professionalism one understands how crucial it is to improve the UK current justice system. The fact that its compliance and efficiency has significantly dropped over the years only proves that there are very few mentorship

Argumentative Essay Essay Example for Free

Argumentative Essay Essay In America there are so many people who live without healthcare. President Obama has tried hard to change that known fact by introducing and passing his new Obama Care Act. It is very important for people to have proper healthcare coverage, medical care, affordable medications, and for all healthcare services to be available to everyone, whether they are poor, middle class or rich. For most Americans, high quality care generally is readily accessible without long waits but at high cost. However, the uninsured and, increasingly, the underinsured, the poor, and members of underserved minorities often have poor access to health care and poor health outcomes. The health workforce is well trained, yet the United States faces a severe shortage of primary care physicians. Approximately 45% of the U.S. population has a chronic medical condition, and about 60 million people, half of these, have multiple chronic conditions; the CDC estimated these numbers during a recent survey. 2 Most Americans 250 million (84.2%) have some form of health insurance coverage. But an estimated 47 million Americans (15.8%) were uninsured for a year, as reported for 2006 by the U.S. Bureau of the Census. A survey by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that 43.6 million people (14.8%) of all ages were uninsured at the time of the National Health Expenditure Survey interview in 2006. However, as many as 89.5 million people under the age of 65 years lacked health insurance for a least 1 month or more during 2006-2007, according to a study by Lewin and associates published by Families USA. In addition, another 16 million people can be  considered underinsured. People without health insurance are much less likely than those with insurance to receive recommended preventive services and medications, are less likely to have access to regular care by a personal physician, and are less able to obtain needed health care services. Consequently, the uninsured are more likely to succumb to preventable illnesses, more likely to suffer complications from those illnesses, and more likely to die prematurely. The U.S. health care system has much potential for improvement. Disparities related to race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status has pervaded the U.S. health care system. In addition to the large numbers of Americans who lack adequate health insurance, the cost, quality, and utilization of health care services vary widely. Meanwhile, the need for long term care services and care coordination is increasing. Preventive care, cross discipline coordination, and proactive management of long term care might reduce the cost of care, but these services often are uncovered or poorly reimbursed. 3 Spending on health care in the United States has been rising at a faster pace than spending in the rest of the economy since the 1960’s. According to the Centers for Medicare Medicaid Services- National Health Statistics Group states that in 2005, national health care spending amounted to approximately $2.0 trillion, or $6697 per person and 16% of the gross domestic product. By 2015, health care spending is expected to reach $4.0 trillion. People with large medical care cost are often chronically ill, disabled, or poor. Our society’s inability to provide continuous, coherent patient centered care for this group of individuals is one cause of the high aggregate cost of health care and contributes to the cost of public insurance programs. Patients who enter Medicare without previous insurance but with chronic illness will be sicker and more disabled and therefore more costly to that government program. Health insurance premiums increased drastically since the year 2005. Many have been unable to even afford health coverage. Employer based health insurance has been the basis for paying for health services since 1940, but  it is fast eroding under the pressure of relentlessly rising costs of care. Despite the growing need for coordination of health care services, government and private insures pay for health care services primarily on a episodic, visit related basis with few, if any, incentives for providing comprehensive, coordinated, and continuous care for the prevention and management of chronic illness. Primary care physicians now spend about 20% of their time in unreimbursed coordination of care tasks using the telephone or e-mail. Despite repeated attempts to rein in federal expenditures for Medicare and Medicaid, federal have continued to increase much faster than inflation in the entire economy. 4 The Medicaid program provides medical benefits to over 52 million people who meet categorical eligibility standards. The federal government and the state share responsibility for funding Medicaid. The success of the VA system in dramatically restructuring itself indicates that major gains can be achieved in the United States in improving health care access and quality while reducing costs. One response to rising health care costs has been the adoption of consumer directed health plans in which the individual takes greater responsibility for paying for care out of pocket rather than the employer or government. Unfortunately, for those with modest incomes, cost sharing has reduced medically necessary care, such as taking medicines for hypertension. The United States is in such a crisis when it comes to the health care system, yet is very important to see that every one of its citizens is afforded health coverage. People are sickly in this nation, like it is in other countries. The United States is in the midst of a primary health care workforce crisis that is expected to worsen in the next decade. The population is aging, and baby boomers are at a high, and a large amount of people will soon be over 65 years and at greater risk for needing care for chronic conditions. The United States should continue to work on having national policies introduced to the health care system to help guide training, supply, and the distribution of health care providers to better assist those in need of health coverage. It is very important to make this a reality, because we the  people of the United States need to be able to receive medical care, and health coverage, no matter if we are rich or poor in this society.

VLSI Design and Embedded Systems

VLSI Design and Embedded Systems CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Motivation Phase locked loop (PLL) [1-3] is the heart of the many modern electronics as well as communication system. Recently plenty of the researches have conducted on the design of phase locked loop (PLL) circuit and still research is going on this topic. Most of the researches have conducted to realize a higher lock range PLL with lesser lock time [4] and have tolerable phase noise. The most versatile application of the phase locked loops (PLL) is for clock generation and clock recovery in microprocessor, networking, communication systems, and frequency synthesizers. Phase locked-loops (PLLs) are commonly used to generate well-timed on-chip clocks in high-performance digital systems. Modern wireless communication systems employ Phase Locked Loop (PLL) mainly for synchronization, clock synthesis, skew and jitter reduction [5]. Phase locked loops find wide application in several modern applications mostly in advance communication and instrumentation systems. PLL being a mixed signal circuit i nvolves design challenge at high frequency. Since its inspection in early 1930s, where it was used in the synchronization of the horizontal and vertical scans of television, it has come to an advanced form of integrated circuit (IC). Today found uses in many other applications. The first PLL ICs were available around 1965; it was built using purely analog component. Recent advances in integrated circuit design techniques have led to the development of high performance PLL which has become more economical and reliable. Now a whole PLL circuit can be integrated as a part of a larger circuit on a single chip. There are mainly five blocks in a PLL. These are phase frequency detector (PFD), charge pump (CP), low pass loop filter (LPF), voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) and frequency divider. Presently almost all communication and electronics devices operate at a higher frequency, so for that purpose we need a faster locking PLL. So there are a lot of challenges in designing the mentioned different blocks of the PLL to operate at a higher frequency. And these challenges motivated me towards this research topic. In this work mainly the faster locking of the PLL is concentrated by properly choosing the circuit architectures and parameters. The optimization of the VCO circuit is also carried out in this work to get a better frequency precision. 1.2 Organization of Thesis Before going into the details of the PLL, the motivation behind this work is mentioned in the Chapter 1 of the thesis. Chapter 2 briefly describes the whole PLL system. An introduction to the PLL circuit is mentioned in the section 2.1. Section 2.2 contains the detail architecture of the whole PLL system. Different types of PLLs are mentioned in the section 2.3. Section 2.4 explains the basic terms used in the PLL system while the consecutive sections give the details about the noise and application of the PLL. Chapter 3 builds the concepts of optimization. Definition of optimization technique and different circuit optimization techniques are presented in section 3.1 and 3.2 respectively. Section 3.3 gives the brief outline of the concept of geometric programming and convex optimization. The optimization of the CSVCO circuit is explained in section 3.4. The design and synthesis of the PLL is described in Chapter 4. The different design environments used in this work is mentioned in the section 4.1. The adopted design procedure is explained in section 4.2. Section 4.3 gives the design specifications and parameters of the work. The simulation results of the different circuits used in the PLL are depicted in the different sections of the Chapter 5. The performance of the CSVCO designed using convex optimization is compared with that of the traditional method in section 5.3. Section 5.5 gives the different simulation results of the PLL and its performance comparison between schematic and post layout level. At last Chapter 6 provides the conclusion that inferred from the work. CHAPTER 2 PHASE LOCKED LOOP 2.1 Introduction A PLL is a closed-loop feedback system that sets fixed phase relationship between its output clock phase and the phase of a reference clock. A PLL is capable of tracking the phase changes that falls in this bandwidth of the PLL. A PLL also multiplies a low-frequency reference clock CKref to produce a high-frequency clock CKout this is known as clock synthesis. A PLL has a negative feedback control system circuit. The main objective of a PLL is to generate a signal in which the phase is the same as the phase of a reference signal. This is achieved after many iterations of comparison of the reference and feedback signals. In this lock mode the phase of the reference and feedback signal is zero. After this, the PLL continues to compare the two signals but since they are in lock mode, the PLL output is constant. The basic block diagram of the PLL is shown in the Figure 2.1. In general a PLL consists of five main blocks: Phase Detector or Phase Frequency Detector (PD or PFD) Charge Pump (CP) Low Pass Filter (LPF) Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) Divide by N Counter The â€Å"Phase frequency Detector† (PFD) is one of the main parts in PLL circuits. It compares the phase and frequency difference between the reference clock and the feedback clock. Depending upon the phase and frequency deviation, it generates two output signals â€Å"UP† and â€Å"DOWN†. The â€Å"Charge Pump† (CP) circuit is used in the PLL to combine both the outputs of the PFD and give a single output. The output of the CP circuit is fed to a â€Å"Low Pass Filter† (LPF) to generate a DC control voltage. The phase and frequency of the â€Å"Voltage Controlled Oscillator† (VCO) output depends on the generated DC control voltage. If the PFD generates an â€Å"UP† signal, the error voltage at the output of LPF increases which in turn increase the VCO output signal frequency. On the contrary, if a â€Å"DOWN† signal is generated, the VCO output signal frequency decreases. The output of the VCO is then fed back to the PFD in or der to recalculate the phase difference, and then we can create closed loop frequency control system. 2.2 PLL Architecture The architecture of a charge-pump PLL is shown in Figure 2.2. A PLL comprises of several components. They are (1) phase or phase frequency detector, (2) charge pump, (3) loop filter, (4) voltage-controlled oscillator, and (5) frequency divider. The functioning of each block is briefly explained below. 2.2.1 Phase Frequency Detector The â€Å"Phase frequency Detector† (PFD) is one of the main part in PLL circuits. It compares the phase and frequency difference between the reference clock and the feedback clock. Depending upon the phase and frequency deviation, it generates two output signals â€Å"UP† and â€Å"DOWN†. Figure 2.3 shows a traditional PFD circuit. If there is a phase difference between the two signals, it will generate â€Å"UP† or â€Å"DOWN† synchronized signals. When the reference clock rising edge leads the feedback input clock rising edge â€Å"UP† signal goes high while keeping â€Å"DOWN† signal low. On the other hand if the feedback input clock rising edge leads the reference clock rising edge â€Å"DOWN† signal goes high and â€Å"UP† signal goes low. Fast phase and frequency acquisition PFDs [6-7] are generally preferred over traditional PFD. 2.2.2 Charge Pump and Loop Filter Charge pump circuit is an important block of the whole PLL system. It converts the phase or frequency difference information into a voltage, used to tune the VCO. Charge pump circuit is used to combine both the outputs of the PFD and give a single output which is fed to the input of the filter. Charge pump circuit gives a constant current of value IPDI which should be insensitive to the supply voltage variation [8]. The amplitude of the current always remains same but the polarity changes which depend on the value of the â€Å"UP† and â€Å"DOWN† signal. The schematic diagram of the charge pump circuit with loop filter is shown in the Figure 2.4. When the UP signal goes high M2 transistor turns ON while M1 is OFF and the output current is IPDI with a positive polarity. When the down signal becomes high M1 transistor turns ON while M2 is OFF and the output current is IPDI with a negative polarity. The charge pump output current [3] is given by IPDI=IPUMP—IPUMP4Ï€Ãâ€"ΔÎ ¦ =2IPUMP4Ï€Ãâ€"ΔÎ ¦ =IPUMP2Ï€Ãâ€"ΔÎ ¦ =KPDIÃâ€"ΔÎ ¦ (1) Where KPDI=IPUMP2Ï€ (amps/radian) (2) The passive low pass loop filter is used to convert back the charge pump current into the voltage. The filter should be as compact as possible [9].The output voltage of the loop filter controls the oscillation frequency of the VCO. The loop filter voltage will increase if Fref rising edge leads Fin rising edge and will decrease if Fin rising edge leads Fref rising edge. If the PLL is in locked state it maintains a constant value. The VCO input voltage is given by Vinvco = KF Ãâ€" IPDI (3) Where KF is the gain of the loop filter. 2.2.3 Voltage Controlled Oscillator An oscillator is an autonomous system which generates a periodic output without any input. The most popular type of the VCO circuit is the current starved voltage controlled oscillator (CSVCO). Here the number of inverter stages is fixed with 5. The simplified view of a single stage current starved oscillator is shown in the Figure 2.5. Transistors M2 and M3 operate as an inverter while M1 and M4 operate as current sources. The current sources, Ml and M4, limit the current available to the inverter, M2 and M3; in other words, the inverter is starved for current. The desired center frequency of the designed circuit is 1GHz with a supply of 1.8V. The CSVCO is designed both in usual manner as mentioned in [3], [10, 11]. The general circuit diagram of the current starved voltage controlled oscillator is shown in the Figure 2.6. To determine the design equations for the CSVCO, consider the simplified view of VCO in Figure 2.5. The total capacitance on the drains of M2 and M3 is given by Ctot=52Cox(LpWp+LnWn) (4) The time it takes to charge Ctot from zero to VSP with the constant current ID4 is given by t1=VSPID4Ãâ€"Ctot (5) While the time it takes to discharge Ctot from VDD to VSP is given by t1=VDD-VSPID1Ãâ€"Ctot (6) If we set ID4= ID1=ID then the sum of t1 and t2 is given by t1+t2=VDDIDÃâ€"Ctot (7) The oscillation frequency of CSVCO for N number of stage is fosc=1Nt1+t2=IDNCtotVDD (8) This is equal to fcenter when Vinvco=VDD2 (9) The gain of the VCO is given by KVCO=fmax-fminVmax-Vmin HzV (10) 2.2.4 Frequency Divider The output of the VCO is fed back to the input of PFD through the frequency divider circuit. The frequency divider in the PLL circuit forms a closed loop. It scales down the frequency of the VCO output signal. A simple D flip flop (DFF) acts as a frequency divider circuit. The schematic of a simple DFF based divide by 2 frequency divider circuit is shown in the Figure 2.7. 2.3 Types of PLL There are mainly 4 types of PLL are available. They are . Liner PLL Digital PLL All Digital PLL Soft PLL 2.4 Terms in PLL 2.4.1 Lock in Range Once the PLL is in lock state what is the range of frequencies for which it can keep itself locked is called as lock in range. This is also called as tracking range or holding range. 2.4.2 Capture Range When the PLL is initially not in lock, what frequency range can make PLL lock is called as capture range. This is also known as acquisition range. This is directly proportional to the LPF bandwidth. Reduction in the loop filter bandwidth thus improves the rejection of the out of band signals, but at the same time the capture range decreases, pull in time becomes larger and phase margin becomes poor. 2.4.3 Pull in Time The total time taken by the PLL to capture the signal (or to establish the lock) is called as Pull in Time of PLL. It is also called as Acquisition Time of PLL. 2.4.4 Bandwidth of PLL Bandwidth is the frequency at which the PLL begins to lose the lock with reference. 2.5 Noises in PLL The output of the practical system deviates from the desired response. This is because of the imperfections and noises in the system. The supply noise also affects the output noise of the PLL system [12]. There are mainly 4 types of noises. They are explained below. 2.5.1 Phase Noise The phase fluctuation due to the random frequency variation of a signal is called as phase noise. This is mostly affected by oscillators frequency stability. The main sources of the phase noise in PLL are oscillator noise [12-15], PFD and frequency divider circuit. The main components of the phase noise are thermal and flicker noise. 2.5.2 Jitter A jitter is the short term-term variations of a signal with respect to its ideal position in time [16-19]. This problem negatively impacts the data transmission quality. Jitter and phase noise are closely related and can be computed one from another [18]. Deviation from the ideal position can occur on either leading edge or trailing edge of signal. Jitter may be induced and coupled onto a clock signal from several different sources and is not uniform over all frequencies. Excessive jitter can increase bit error rate (BER) of communication signal [19]. In digital system Jitter leads to violation in time margins, causing circuits to behave improperly. 2.5.3 Spur Non-desired frequency content not related to the frequency of oscillation and its harmonics is called as â€Å"Spur†. There are mainly two types of spur. They are reference spur and fractional spur. Reference spur comes into picture in an integer PLL while fractional spur plays a major role in fractional PLL. When the PLL is in lock state the phase and frequency inputs to the PFD are essentially equal. There should not be any error output from the PFD. Since this can create problem, so the PFD is designed such that, in the locked state the current pulses from the CP will have a very narrow width as shown in the Figure 2.9. Because of this the input control voltage of the VCO is modulated by the reference signal and thus produces â€Å"Reference Spur† [20]. 2.5.4 Charge Pump Leakage Current When the CP output from the synthesizer is programmed to the high impedance state, in practice there should not be any current flow. But in practical some leakage current flows in the circuit and this is known as â€Å"charge pump leakage current† [20]. 2.6 Applications of PLL The demand of the PLL circuit increases day by day because of its wide application in the area of electronics, communication and instrumentation. The recent applications of the PLL circuits are in memories, microprocessors, hard disk drive electronics, RF and wireless transceivers, clock recovery circuits on microcontroller boards and optical fiber receivers. Some of the PLL applications are mentioned below. 1. Frequency Synthesis A frequency synthesizer is an electronic system for generating a range of frequencies from a single fixed time base or oscillator. 2. Clock Generation Many electronic systems include processors of various sorts that operate at hundreds of megahertz. Typically, the clocks supplied to these processors come from clock generator PLLs, which multiply a lower-frequency reference clock (usually 50 or 100 MHz) up to the operating frequency of the processor. The multiplication factor can be quite large in cases where the operating frequency is multiple GHz and the reference crystal is just tens or hundreds of megahertz. 3. Carrier Recovery (Clock Recovery) Some data streams, especially high-speed serial data streams (such as the raw stream of data from the magnetic head of a disk drive), are sent without an accompanying clock. The receiver generates a clock from an approximate frequency reference, and then phase-aligns to the transitions in the data stream with a PLL. This process is referred to as clock recovery. 4. SkewReduction This is one of the very popular and earliest uses of PLL. Suppose synchronous pair of data and clock lines enter a large digital chip. Since clock typically drives a large number of transistors and logic interconnects, it is first applied to large buffer. Thus, the clock distributed on chip may suffer from substantial skew with respect to data. This is an undesirable effect which reduces the timing budget for on-chip operations. 5. Jitter and Noise Reduction One desirable property of all PLLs is that the reference and feedback clock edges be brought into very close alignment. The average difference in time between the phases of the two signals when the PLL has achieved lock is called the static phase offset. The variance between these phases is called tracking jitter. Ideally, the static phase offset should be zero, and the tracking jitter should be as low as possible. CHAPTER 3 CONVEX OPTIMIZATION OF VCO IN PLL 3.1 What is an optimization technique? Optimization technique is nothing but the finding of the action that optimizes i.e. minimizes or maximizes the result of the objective function. Optimization technique is applied to the circuits aiming at finding out the optimized circuit design parameter to achieve either the best performance or the desired performance. Optimization techniques are a set of most powerful tools that are used in efficiently handling the design resources and there by achieve the best result. Mainly optimization techniques are applied to the circuit for the selection of the component values, devices sizes, and value of the voltage or current source. 3.2 Types of circuit optimization method There are mainly four types of circuit optimization methods exist. They are Classical optimization Knowledge based optimization Global optimization method Convex optimization and geometric programming 3.2.1 Classical Optimization Methods: In case of analog circuit CAD, classical optimization methods [21], such as steepest descent, sequential quadratic programming, and Lagrange multiplier methods are mainly used. These methods are used with more complicated circuit models, including even full SPICE simulations in each iteration. This method can handle a wide variety of problem. For this there is a need of a set of performance measures and computation of one or more derivatives. The main disadvantage of the classical optimization methods is that the global optimal solution is not possible. This method fails to find a feasible design even one exist. This method gives only the local minima instead of global solution. Since many different initial designs are considered to get the global optimization, the method becomes slower. Because of the human intervention (to give â€Å"good† initial designs), the method becomes less automated. The classical methods become slow if complex models are used. 3.2.2 Knowledge-Based Methods: Knowledge-based and expert-systems methods such as genetic algorithm or evolution systems, systems based on Fuzzy logic, and heuristics-based systems have also been widely used in analog circuit CAD [21]. In case of knowledge based methods, there are few limitations on the types of problems, specifications, and performance measures that are to be considered. These methods do not require the computation of the derivatives. This is not possible to find a global optimal design solution using these methods. The final design is decided on the basis of the initial design chosen and the algorithm parameters. The disadvantage of the knowledge based methods is that they simply fail to find a feasible solution even when one may exist. There is a need of human intervention during the design and the training process. 3.2.3 Global Optimization Methods: Global optimization methods such as branch and bound and simulated annealing are also used in analog circuit design [21]. These methods are guaranteed to find the global optimal design solution. The global optimal design is determined by the branch and bound methods unambiguously. In each iteration, a suboptimal feasible design and also a lower bound on the achievable performance is maintained by this method. This enables the algorithm to terminate non-heuristically, i.e., with complete confidence that the global design has been found within a given tolerance. The branch and bound method is extremely slow, with computation growing exponentially with problem size. The trapping in a locally optimal design can be avoided by using simulated annealing (SA). This method can compute the global optimal solution but not guaranteed. Since there is no real-time lower bound is available, so termination is heuristic. This method can also handle a wide variety of performance indices and objects. T he main advantage of SA is that it handles the continuous variables and discrete variables problems efficiently and reduces the chances of getting a non-globally optimal design. The only problem with this method is that it is very slow and can not guarantee a global optimal solution. 3.2.4 Convex Optimization and Geometric Programming Methods: Geometric programming methods are special optimization problems in which the objective and constraint functions are all convex [22-24]. Convex optimization technique can solve the problems having a large number of variables and constraints very efficiently [22]. The main advantage of this method for which people generally adopt is that the method gives the global solution. Infeasibility is unambiguously detected. Since a lower bound on the achievable performance is given, so the method uses a completely non- heuristic stopping criterion. 3.3 Geometric programming and convex optimization Geometric programming is a special type of optimization technique in which all the objective must be convex. Before applying this technique it has to confirm that whether the given problem is convex optimization problem or not. Convex optimization problem means the problem of minimizing a convex function subject to convex inequality constraints and linear equality constraints. In IC integration convex optimization and geometric programming has become a more efficient computational tool for optimization purpose. This method has an ability to handle thousands of variables and constraints and solve efficiently. The main advantage of convex optimization technique is that it gives the global optimized value and the robust design. The fact that geometric programs can be solved very efficiently has a number of practical consequences. For example, the method can be used to simultaneously optimize the design of a large number of circuits in a single large mixed-mode integrated circuit. The de signs of the individual circuits are coupled by constraints on total power and area, and by various parameters that affect the circuit coupling such as input capacitance, output resistance, etc. Convex optimization is used to find out the optimized value of these parameter and sizing of the devices in the circuit [25]. Another application is to use the efficiency to obtain robust designs i.e., designs that are guaranteed to meet a set of specifications over a variety of processes or technology parameter values. This is done by simply replicating the specifications with a (possibly large) number of representative process parameters, which is practical only because geometric programs with thousands of constraints are readily solved. A real valued function fx defined on an interval (space) is called convex if ftx1+1-tx2≠¤tfx1+1-tfx2 (11) For every t,0 In the Figure 3.1 function fx is represented as a convex function on an interval. The convex optimization problem is in the form of minimize f0x Subjected to fix≠¤1 , i=1, 2, 3†¦, m gix=1 , i=1, 2, 3†¦, p xi>1 , i=1, 2, 3†¦, n Where fix is a posynomial function gix is a monomial function Let x1,x2†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦xn be n real positive variables. We can denote the vector (xi,xi†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.xi) of these variables asx. A function f is called a posynomial function of x if it has the form fix1,x2†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦xn=k=1tCkx1ÃŽ ±1kx2ÃŽ ±2k†¦..xnÃŽ ±nk (12) Where Cj≠¥0 and ÃŽ ±ij à Ã‚ µ R. The coefficients Cj must be nonnegative but the exponents ÃŽ ±ij can be any real numbers including negative or fractional. When there is exactly one nonzero term in the sum i.e. t=1 and C1>0, we call f is a monomial function. 3.3.1 Advantages:  § Handle thousands of variables and constraints and solve efficiently.  § Global optimization can be obtained. 3.3.2 Disadvantages: * Strictly limited to types of problems, performance specification and objectives that can be handled. 3.4 Optimization of the VCO circuit In my earlier design of the VCO circuit, the sizes of all the five inverter stages are same. Now the convex optimization technique is applied to find out the optimal scaling ratio of the different inverter stages to get the optimal design with a better performance. There are 5 inverter stages and the design has to give a delay of 100ps. The load capacitance of the VCO circuit is 65 fF. All these design constraints are formulated and applied to the convex optimization technique. Mainly optimization techniques are applied for selection of component values and transistor sizing. In this work I have used the geometric programming technique to find out the optimized scaling ratio of the different stages in CSVCO to meet the desired center frequency with lesser deviation. Let xi is the scaling ration of the ith stage, CL is the load capacitance, and D is the total delay of the inverter stages then optimization problem is in the form of Minimize sum (xi) Subjected to CL≠¤CLmax D≠¤Dmax Where CLmax and Dmax are required design parameters and has a constant value. CHAPTER 4 DESIGN AND SYNTHESIS OF PLL 4.1 Design Environment The schematic level design entry of the circuits is carried out in the CADENCE Virtuoso Analog Design Environment. The layout of the PLL is designed in Virtuoso XL using GPDK090 library. In order to analyze the performances, these circuits are simulated in the Spectre simulator of CADENCE tool. Different performance indices such as phase noise, power consumption and lock time are measured in this environment. Transient, parametric sweep and phase noise analyses are carried out in this work to find out the performances of the circuit. The optimization of the current starved VCO circuit, the scale factor for transistor sizing is found out using the MATLAB environment. 4.2 Design Procedure 4.2.1 VCO Design Since VCO is the heart of the whole PLL system, it should be designed in a proper manner. The design steps for the current starved VCO are as follows. Step 1 Find the value of the propagation delay for each stage of the inverter in the VCO circuit using the following equation. Ï„p=1Nf (13) Where Ï„p= Ï„phl= Ï„plh= half of the propagation delay time of the inverter N= no of inverter stages f= required center frequency of oscillation Step 2 Find the WL ratio for the transistors in the different inverter stages using the equation in below. WL n=CloadÏ„phl µnCoxVdd-VT,n2VT,nVdd-VT,n+ln4Vdd-VT,nVdd-1 (14) WL p=CloadÏ„plh µpCoxVdd-VT,p2VT,pVdd-VT,p+ln4Vdd-VT,pVdd-1 (15) Step 3 After finding the WL ratio, find the values for W and L. Step 4 Find the value of the total capacitance form the expression Ctot=52Cox(LpWp+LnWn) (16) Where Cox is the oxide capacitance Lp,Wp,Ln,Wn is the width and length of the PMOS and NMOS transistors in the inverter stages. Step 5 Calculate the value of drain current for the center frequency which is given by IDcenter=NCtotVddf (17) Step 6 Find the WL ratio for the current starving transistors in the circuit from the drain current expression which is represented as WL n=2Ãâ€"IDcenter µnCoxVgs-VT,n2 (18) Similarly WL p=2.5Ãâ€"WL n (19) 4.2.2 Design of Phase Locked Loop The value of the charge pump current and the component parameters of the loop filter play a major role in the design of the phase locked loop circuit. The value of the lock time mainly depends upon these parameters. So while designing the circuit proper care should be taken in calculating these parameters. For the given values of reference(Fref) and output frequency(Fout) as well as the lock in range, the following steps to be carried out in designing the filter circuit. Step 1 Find the value of the divider circuit to be used which is given by n=FoutFref (20) Step 2 Find the value of the natural frequency (ωn) from the lock in range as given below lock in range=2Ãâ€"ÃŽ ¾Ãƒâ€"ωn (21) Step 3 Find the value of the charge pump gain (KPDI) from the charge pump current used in the circuit which is given by KPDI=Ipump2Ï€ (Amps/radian) (22) Step 4 Find the value of the gain of the VCO (Kvco) circuit from the characteristics curve using the following expression. Kvco=fmax-fminVmax-Vmin (Hz/V) (23) Step 5 Find the values of the loop filter component parameters using the following expressions. C1=KPDIÃâ€"KvcoNωn2 (24) C2=C110 (25) R=2ÃŽ ¾Ãâ€°nC1 (26) 4.3 Design Specifications and Parameters 4.3.1 VCO Design Specification The current starved VCO design specifications are mentioned in the following table. Table 1 VCO design specifications 4.3.2 VCO Design Parameters Table 2 List of design parameters of the CSVCO circuit 4.3.3 PLL Design Parameters The whole PLL system design specifications and parameters are shown in the Table 3. Parameter Value Reference frequency((Fref) 500 MHz output frequency(Fout) 1 GHz Lock in range 100 MHz

Study On The Paleolithic Age History Essay

Study On The Paleolithic Age History Essay The Paleolithic Age was a period of technology that was developed from stone. The advancements of the Neolithic Age lead to new technologies which introduced metal tools. Also the Neolithic houses were built of mud brick and were more secure compared to the Paleolithic shelters. Their dwellings were constructed sturdier because the people lived more stable lives and there was no need to be so mobile. The invention of pottery was another big advantage that the Neolithic people had over the Paleolithic people. The Neolithic Revolution led to settlements and the advancement of group living. Also, after the Neolithic revolution began more intricate community situations led to improved and more complex forms of communication. The Neolithic revolution also led to the growth of governments and higher forms of organization because now that people were living in settlements they started separating the labor. I also think trade stemmed from this revolution because now people would now trade the extra food that they grew for other things they did not have. Lastly in my opinion the Neolithic Revolution also lead to the change from a matriarchal classification to a more patriarchal classification. 2. The Caste System had many advantages and disadvantages. The first disadvantage in my opinion is that the weak were oppressed by the social and politically advantaged people in the name of faith and customs. I also think the Caste System brought about division and resentment that in turn evolved into disunity among the Indian Society. This made India weak against foreign invasion. The biggest disadvantage was that the caste system was based on birth rather than individual talent or skills. Lastly, I think the Caste System created an individual class called the untouchables which were treated less than human. An advantage to the Caste System is that it played an important part in shaping profitable activities in Indian Society. This was made feasible because a distinct system of shared interdependence through a division of labor forms protection for those within a group. Another advantage was that each caste became an expert in their own area of trade. I think the Caste System reflected Indian society in a very negative manner. The caste system at anytime is appalling, it is hypercritical, and without the feeling of affection. I think one major problem it caused was a power struggle between the Brahmins and Kshatriyas. I think the Caste System became an outcome of human greediness and arrogance and it developed into an awfully harsh system of prejudice and domination. 3. The first tenet of Zoroastrianism is the belief in a supreme and universal god. He is the designer, the maintainer, and he protects the good from the wicked. The second important tenet of Zoroastrianism is the belief in the duality of survival. Zoroastrians accept the fact that the earth is a combat zone between good and evil forces. The third tenet is the belief in the holiness of conception. The Zoroastrians believe his conception is holy and marvelous so they feel it is everyones job to keep it unpolluted and sustain order. The last tenet of Zoroastrianism is the belief in the divine character of the Earth and mankind. They believe the material world consisting of flames, water, atmosphere, dirt, vegetation, nature, and humans are much like the body of God. Zoroastrianism is very influential because it is one of the oldest existing religions on the planet. Zarathustra teachings were notice by the ancient Greek and Roman theorists who wrote about his life and teachings. Zoroastrianism brought about the perceptions of Heaven and Hell; the idea that humans have free will faced the judgment by God after death. It basically paved the way for the religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Before Zoroastrians influence the Hebrew Bible made no reference of a physical or emotional revitalization. Christianity is believed to be taught through the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth and Zoroastrianism is taught through the prophesy of Zarathustra. These two religions have many similarities. The one similarity that stood out to me was that in both religions there is a belief in afterlife. Also in both religions there is a constant struggle between good and evil. The last thing that stood out was the fact that each religion believed that mankind should have free will. 6. When comparing and contrasting the religions of Hinduism and Buddhism you will first notice that both of these religions originated in the South Asia region. The one thing that stood out to me was that even though they had similar customs and values, they had very different ideas on matters of social organization. The two religions also differ on the ideas of the importance of individual freedom to progress both socially and spiritually. Another big difference is that there was not a specific founder of Hinduism. Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama in 563 B.C. and Hinduism is more of a collection of different religions and cultures. In Hinduism a person must live their life through Dharma which is a sense of obligation. Through this a person can fulfill his roles in society and the world. In Buddhism a person must live their life through Dharma, which has no social obligations but sets up a definition of right behavior and responsibility. This is done so a person can escape the cycle of suffering and rebirth or samaras and achieve nirvana. In both religions they believe in the process of reincarnation and the effects of Karma. In conclusion, Hinduism and Buddhism both influenced India even though both influenced it in dissimilar ways. The major way that Hinduism influenced India is by the Caste System. The Caste System is the order of social classes of India, and is still acknowledged by some in India, although it is now prohibited. Buddhism influenced India mostly in ways of art with many sculptures which were made in the likeness of Buddha. Buddhists cultured ways of getting in touch with their internal character through the technique of meditation. Buddhists believed in both karma and dharma. Hindus construe this as if reincarnated into an improved social class coming nearer to evading suffering would be possible. 7. The Pax Romana was a time of harmony in the Mediterranean that lasted from the control of Augustus to the reign of Marcus Aurelius. The most outstanding characteristic of this period was the fact that there were two hundred continuous years of peace within Rome. Under this peace time, Augustus was able to extend his reign to Asia Minor. The economy also prospered within this time period by improving many harbors, building roads, clearing forests, and by turning unused land into farms. In my opinion this is also a time where there was an architectural revolution. The Pax Romana was a period of time that proved to be an example of five good rulers. The beginning of the Pax Romana began with the reign of Augustus and lasted forty-five years until his death. As ruler he was able to create a Roman Empire that had a much more balanced foundation. After his death, Rome had a few years of bad rulers. In my opinion The Roman Empire wasnt totally unified during this period. I also think the Pax Romana should not be spoken as the point in time of Roman tranquility which the name itself suggests. The Romans did remunerate wars during this period and there were common strifes as leaders were assassinated and tyranny was fluent. However, it was a time of wealth and progress in every sense. There were many similarities between the Pax Romana and Han China empires, length, area, economic transformation, and territorial expansion stood out to me the most. However, in my judgment the differences are more interesting. Political assimilation in China was obtained by the increase of Confucian values, characters of the emperors, and a bureaucratic government. The powerful Roman law was emphasized over their fragile system of government. Mysticism of emperors was not as dangerous politically, even though many made claim for the position. I think one of the greatest similarities is the development of technology and architecture and also the change in government policies. The major difference in my opinion was the fact that the Roman Empire turned their government into a republic and Han China maintained the structure of the Qin Empire. 8. The main achievements of the Roman Empire was the size of the empire, the advancement of its bureaucratic system, and they had one of the most well-organized, efficient, and vicious armies that the world has ever seen. In my opinion one major limitation that helped effect Romes fall was that usually Roman armies had more allegiance to their general than the state. I feel this contributed to constant civil war which plagued Rome during a large amount of its record. I also think that a very advanced culture would be an achievement of Rome. I also want to add that another limitation is that Rome suffered from a long period of terrible rulers and even with the development of technology wasnt enough to hold this great empire together. One key turning point in Roman History was the overthrow of the Tarquin monarchy by Junius Brutus in 509 BC. After this Rome never converts back to a monarchy. The republic of Rome was then ruled by the Senate and its assembly. I also think the Punic Wars were another major turning point in Roman history. After the Second Punic War, Rome paved the road for its power over Italy and established itself as the main power in the western Mediterranean. This bought about power and wealth to almost the entire region. The last turning point I want to mention is the year of the five emperors. This was the turning point that in my opinion started the decline of the Roman Empire. I think Romes legacy would be that they paved the way for western civilization. I also think the architecture of the Roman Empire was very dominant for its era in history. The Romans also contributed too many changes in British landscape. I also believe that much of Romes literature and writing has influenced the world. Lastly, the Romans will always be remembered because they had the best, well-organized, efficient, and vicious armies that the world has ever seen.

Rise and fall of rome :: essays research papers

The divergence of local culture is apt to occur. With this enculturation a new language or dialect of language often is born. This paper will discuss the factors which cause language to change. It will focus on the development of â€Å"New-Englishes†. What are â€Å"New-Englishes†? They develop from areas, which have been in contact with an English-speaking colony the process involves five main steps Foundation, Exonormative Stabilization, Nativization, Endonormative Stabilization, and finally differentiation. Foundation is the first stage, this involves a group of English speaking settlers who create an English speaking base in an area where English is not a spoken language. The settlers previous accents and dialects play an enormous role in how the indigenous people learn English. As the settlers often have different dialects of English themselves, the most universal words and phrases of all the dialects are often included in the â€Å"New-English’s† vocabulary where as the regionalisms of each English dialect will often be dropped. This stage is often awkward for both the parties involved as cross-cultural understanding is often minimal and communication is limited to a few. Thus communication between the indigenous people and the settlers is inhibited. Often with military installations no attempt is made to learn the native language and the emerging dialect is mainly based on the English language. This is not the case with examples like trading posts or Linguistic Anthropologists who attempt to learn the native language to facilitate trade or research. The â€Å"New-Englishes† that emerges from these would contain a solid base fro m both Native and English languages. During this period the native language affects the English spoken, often the first words frequently used of the Native language are place names such as in the United States with Chattahoochee, Mississippi, Milwaukee, Susquehanna, Chicago, Tallahassee, all these are of Native American origin.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The second stage is where an abrupt change occurs the indigenous people realize that it is beneficial to be able to communicate with the settlers. The settlers generally do not attempt to learn the local dialect, as they often believe that they are doing a deed for their country of origin and that once they return their language will again be the norm. This is theorized for both settlers who plan to stay in the foreign country and those who will return after a period of time. The indigenous language begins to work it’s way into the English language as mentioned earlier through place names but also through new species of animals, plants, and new objects.

Nelson Mandelas Long Walk To Freedom Essay -- Nelson Mandela Long Wal

Nelson Mandela in his book, Long Walk to Freedom argues through the first five parts that a black individual must deal, coop, and grow through a society that is hindering their lives' with apartheid and suppression of their rightful land. Rolihlanla Mphakanyiswa or clan name, Madiba was born on July 18, 1918 in a simple village of Mvezo, which was not accustomed to the happenings of South Africa as a whole. His father was an respected man who led a good life, but lost it because of a dispute with the magistrate. While, his mother was a hard-working woman full of daily choirs. His childhood was full of playing games with fellow children and having fun. In school, Mandela was given his English name of Nelson. After his father's death, he moved to love with a regent, who was a well-off individual and owed Nelson's father for a previous favor. The next several years were full of schooling for Nelson. These schools opened Nelson's eyes to many things, which we will discuss later. He and t he regent's son, Justice decided to travel to Johannesburg and see what work they could find. They left on their journey without the regent's permission, but eventually escaped his power and settled down in the town. In Johannesburg, Nelson settled down in a law firm as an assistant and went to University of South Africa and Witwatersrand University to further his law education. Witswatersrand University brought many new ideas to Nelson and awakened a spirit inside of him. The next several years, Nelson met many new political friends and began his involvement in the ANC. Also during this time, he met Evelyn and they became married. Gradually Nelson's political involvement grew and his family life declined. Nelson and his good friend, Oliver Tambo opened a law firm, which took up most of Nelson's time. Evelyn mothered two of Nelson's children, but the gradually grew apart. Now, Nelson was an influential political individual and bans and jailing began to follow him around. One day, a young woman came into his life by the name of Winnie and they got married. Winnie gave birth to two more of Nelson's children. As time passed, Nelson's spirit for freedom grew more and more each day. Though his life was full of bannings and jailings, he never gave up his fight, but he knew that the south African government was becoming agitated with him and the ANC. The South African government became ... ...eid of white supremacy in South Africa. Throughout the book, I have seen Nelson's open-mindedness. Nelson always listened to communist ideas and Indian goals, eventhough he did not agree with them. Nelson faced many hardships through his struggle and this had to cause some resentment against his oppressors. But if anyone would not be bias in his writing, I would say it would be Nelson Mandela. He has showed in his book that he is great individual and that he will not let his past feeling cloud his writing. You can see his feelings in his book and that is what makes it so good, but I believe he does not hide anything from us on both sides of the stories.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In conclusion, Mandela's autobiography is a brilliant book written by an incredible individual. I wish I could of read the whole book for this essay, but that was not possible. It is hard to write an essay on the first 5 parts when I know some things that happened further in the book. I did not know if I should include that information in the essay, but I did not involve it. This book helped to show the other side of the story. We always hear the victor's story and in this class we got to hear the other side of the story.

Economic Markets and State Governments: Adversaries or Symbiotic in the

Do economic markets and state governments share an adversarial or symbiotic relationship? Scholars of International Political Economics have been at odds over what role, if any, the state should have in the International Economy. Despite such disagreements, most scholars can concur that IPE is ultimately concerned with the ways in which states shape the systems through which economic interactions are expressed, and conversely the results that economic interactions (including the power of collective markets and individuals acting both within and outside them) have upon political structures and outcomes. The relation between states and markets in the international scene, and whether, the relationship at home affects relationships abroad, is of great importance. One contemporary in particular Ian Bremmer has attempted to explain this relationship in light of the latest economic recession, and what impact the state should have in the future. In his book titled The End of the Free Marke t Bremmer believes that the Free Market Capitalism which has been a staple of American Economic prosperity is still the system that will provide for innovation and the free flow of ideas, information, people, money, goods, and services (Bremmer,183-184). Countries like China, Russia, Brazil, Mexico, and regions like Southeast Asia and Africa have all converted from command economies to a degree into state capitalist countries. These countries have all experienced the positives of the free market system, but are just now seeing the results of unregulated US domestic bubbles. Globalization, therefore, has created a system that requires government regulation of domestic products and services to ensure that a symbiotic relationship between governments cont... ...elationships between states roar back the world will continue down the current recessionary path which quite possibly could lead to war on a truly global scale. The best way to ensure soverignty for all is with the free-market system which Adam Smith made so famous. As long as nation-states continue to exist (and it appears that they always will) their will be a temptation to revert back into protectionist ways. This I feel is only normal as it bolsters the national scene at home. If America and the rest of the world wants to continue to thrive and expand the pie much needed investment is necessary but maybe we should seek foreign investment help/advice when it is offered. One thing is for certain regulation domestically would go far in instilling the confidence foreign governments had in the United States to not only police the world but also police itself.

Blod Bank Essay

It will explain the purpose and features of the system, the interfaces of the system, what the system will do, the constraints under which it must operate, specific requirements and other supporting information. This document is intended for both the stakeholders and the developers of the system. This document is intended for developers, project coordinator, project guide, users and testers. The developer can use the document to view the analysis and design part, to understand requirements specification. The project coordinator can use this document to review the idea of project whether it is innovative and usable or not. The project guide can use this document to analyze and manage the flow of project development. The tester can use this document to get clear idea about system, to understand the exact input domain of system and to generate respective test cases for the testing purpose. 1. 1 Purpose This Software Requirements Specification provides a complete description of all the functions and specifications of the Blood bank Management System software. The purpose of this document is to present a detailed description of the Blood Bank System. This document is useful for Blood Bank employees who use this system on the daily basis. This document will also serve as a reference to incorporate any changes made in the system to the future. It will also prove to be useful to the managerial staff which is responsible for the smooth functioning of the counter transactions that are performed on daily basis. This document is primarily intended to provide a detailed specification of the functional requirements for developers of the product. It also provides an overview of the product for the users. It will explain the purpose and features of the system, what the systems do and the constraints under which it will operate. This SRS document contains the complete software requirement for Post Office Transaction System and describes the design decisions, architectural design and the detail design needed to implement the system. It provides the visibility in the design and provides information needed for software support. 1. 2 Scope This software is used by System Administrator, Supervisor, Assistant and Lab technicians. The system is designed to provide user authentication by maintaining the user database which contains all the details of user along with login details such as username and password. Each user has a different level of operation for the authentication purpose. The solution will provide a well-organized and coordinated system where the blood and donor records are managed more efficiently with better security. The major goal of the system is to provide synchronized and centralized donor and blood stock database to the blood bank. It also improves the efficiency of blood stock management by alerting the blood bank administrator. System will provides traceability of donor in case of emergency. It also provides performance evaluation using report generation. 1. 3 Definitions, Acronyms, and Abbreviations This subsection should provide the definitions of all terms, acronyms, and abbreviations required to properly interpret the SRS. This information may be provided by reference to one or more appendixes in the SRS or by reference to other documents. 1. 4 References 1. www. bharatbloodbank. com 2. www. bloodbankindia. com 1. 5 Overview This document contains a brief history and insight into the problem as well as what the system is designed to do, the scope of the solution. It gives a brief summary of whom the system is targeted at, its capabilities, and its positioning in the device development process. It also explains requirements of the system and also where exactly the user and stakeholders are placed in the scheme of things. It elaborates on security issues, hardware and software requirement and also the priorities of various functionalities. The document helps the user to understand the Blood Bank System. The first part of the document provides the purpose, objectives and scope of the proposed system. It includes important definition, the problem statement specify the needed details to avoid any kind of ambiguity from user’s perspective. The document also states the feature set and capabilities of the system. The document also highlights the feature of proposed system and the advantages over the existing system. The document also highlights the various issues, error handling and the modification to be done in the system. The document is helpful to the user as it gives them opportunities to state what they expect from the system. In addition, the hardware specification required for the system is also mentioned. The user can read the document and make sure that his machine is equipped to run the system to avoid any inconvenience The user should make use of the document to understand the system better. The rest of this document provides a full description of the project for the blood bank. It lists all the functions performed by the system. It gives the details of each of the system functions and actions in full for the software developer’s assistance. It also gives the overview of the problems currently faced by the system and provides solutions for the same. 2. General Description The project deals with the problem of automated management system that is keeping track of the actual amount of blood stock in the blood bank and to minimize human errors. The solution will provide a well-organized and coordinated system for blood bank where the blood and donor records are managed more efficiently with better security and added automation functions in alerting the administrator when the blood quantity is below par level and about the expired samples. In addition, the administrator can also trace back the donor responsible in case of reactive sample in blood transfusion and blood screening result. This system also creates a convenient and paperless environment for the blood bank in managing donors and processing blood stocks. The registration time for old donor is shortened as the records are retrievable from the system. Also the performance evaluation is possible using report generation facility. 2. 1 Product Perspective This system keep the track of all the actual amount of the blood stock in the blood bank to minimize the human errors. 2. 2 Product Functions 1. System will also maintain Blood Stock records and Discard register. 2. System will provide levels of operators for authentication purpose. 3. System will provide an authentication form where the users will fill the details. 4. System will process the request of login. 5. System will check for the entered details in the login database. 6. If the entered username and password are valid then the system will grant access to the user else will display an error message. 7. System will provide five interfaces such as Testing Interface, Blood Stock Interface, Issue Interface, Donor Registration Interface and Statistics Interface. 8. Donor Registration Interface will take all the personal and medical details of donor and generate a unique id for each donor. 9. If the donor already has an id then will retrieve its details. 10. In Testing Interface, if the results are positive then discard register is updated with sample details. 11. If the results are negative Blood Stock Repository is updated with sample details. 12. In Blood Stock Interface, system will generate unique bag numbers for each product. 13. It will generate alerts when the blood quantity is below par level and about the expired samples. 14. The System will move expired sample details to discard register and update blood stock repository. 15. In Issue Repository, system will check blood stock repository for availability. 16. If stocks are available then system will place an issue order. 7. It will generate a label which includes bag number and details of sample. 18. In Statistics analysis, system will generate various reports. 19. The whole transaction of the blood will be recorded in a system 20. The software will perform the stock management & bill generation. 21. All the transaction of the blood will be updated within a small period of time. 22. The software will generate all the annual record of the blood bank.. 23. It will also maintain the record of the blood donor. 24. It will also maintain the record of the rejected blood and the rejection for the blood rejection. 2. User Characteristics The user must have the basic knowledge of the computer system. It is not necessary that the user must have the knowledge of the computer hardware. System administrator, supervisor, assistant and lab technicians. 2. 4 General Constraints * Blood bank employees ,donors 2. 5 Assumptions and Dependencies * The System will not allow any user with invalid username and invalid password. * The system should not provide administrative privilege to any customer. 3. Specific Requirements The systems should satisfy the below given requirements. 1. Operating System: Windows XP Professional 2. Database Management System (DBMS): MySQL 5. 0 3. Peer to peer connection. This can be done by connecting both the systems using a cross cable and giving different IP addresses to them. 3. 1 External Interface Requirements System Interfaces The systems should satisfy the below given requirements. 4. Operating System: Windows XP Professional 5. Database Management System (DBMS): MySQL 5. 0 6. Peer to peer connection. This can be done by connecting both the systems using a cross cable and giving different IP addresses to them. User Interfaces User Type| Intended Interaction| 1. DONOR REGISTRATION a. New donor b. Regular donor| * The system will take all the personal and medical details of donor and generate an unique id for the donor. * The system will take donors id as input, validate it and retrieve all its details including last donations. | 2. Administrator Login | * This login page will take input as username and password from the administrator * The system will validate the inputs and provide access to the system with more privileges to system and administrator| Testing | * This will take the input as blood group, donor id, date of collection; test carried out and its result. If the test results are positive then sample details are moved to discard register otherwise to blood stock repository. | Blood stock| * It will take all the details of the samples including blood group, its product details, date of collection, date of preparation, date of expiry, result of testing and generate a bag number. * It will generate alerts when the blood quantity is below par level and about the expired samples. * The expired sample details are moved to discard register and removed from blood stock repository. | Issue| * It will take input as product name, quantity, blood group and validate it with blood stock repository. If the stock is available then issue order will be placed. * It will generate a label which includes bag number, details of sample etc. | Statistics Display Page| * The administrator has access to this page. It displays all statistical data regarding the various issue orders placed, blood stock repository and testing screening. * Report generation. | 3. 5 Non-Functional Requirements Goal – To provide authentication to donors. Objective 1 – Create unique id for donor’s. a. Accept donor personal and medical information for new donors. b. Generate unique id for each donor. Objective 2 – Process authentication request. a. Accept donor id in case of regular donor. b. Retrieve donor’s profile. Goal – To manage Blood Stocks. Objective 1 – Process blood stock details. a. Accept product details like collection date, expiry date, blood group etc. b. Generates a unique bag number. Objective 2 – Establish connection with Issue interface and testing interface. a. Validate stock details for issue. b. Update blood stock repository after testing is negative. Goal – To generate reports and label. Objective 1 – To generate report. a. Generate product statistics b. Generate yearly, monthly reports and provide it to the administrator. Objective 1 – To generate labels for issue. a. Generate labels for the issue order placed. b. Provide it to the customer along with the date of delivery 3. 5 Non-Functional Requirements 7. 1. 1 Availability * For the customers, the services available are: Registration as a donor, placement of issue order. * For the administrator, the services available are: Manipulation of databases, change the functionalities provided by the system and monthly and yearly reports generation. . 1. 2 Security * This system maintains consistency and security as the blood stock details can’t be modified by the administrator or the other user. The system analyses the issue order placed by the customer and accordingly fulfills it. The system will also provide authentication by using username and password. * The donor’s database will have its own security to prevent unauthorized write/de lete access. The donor’s details will not be disclosed while issuing. 3. 8 Logical Database Requirements The databases used by the system are * Donor database Blood stock database * Discard database * Account database User database: The purpose of this database is to store the required information of the donors and their id’s. This database will be used for traceability of donor. The donors will fill their information while registration. Their credentials will be saved in this particular database. Blood Stock database: This database is used to maintain blood stock information. It maintains the details of valid samples. Discard database: This database is used to store details of blood samples which have to be discarded. This will contain information of expired samples and those samples which reacted positively in testing screening. Accounts database: The purpose of this database is to store the account details regarding issue of blood sample and to maintain the history of all the previous transactions. This database will be used by the administrator so that he can calculate the total cost of the issue orders placed. Accessing capabilities: 1. Only administrator can set the role of users and their access capabilities 2. No user can access anything outside its accessing capability .